The Communist Manifesto by Marx and Engels

The Communist Manifesto by Marx and Engels The passage I have chosen to analyze critically is a part of the book The Communist Manifesto authored by Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels who are both political theorists. This particular passage has been taken from the second chapter of the book which is named Proletarians and Communists. The Communist Manifesto is considered to be one of the bravest books of all time. Karl Marx, after being banished from Paris for his comments on radical politics, he established a group of working class people from Germany and together they formed The Communist League. The testimonials of the communal principles of the group were written down which later took the form of the book, the Communist Manifesto. The book unwraps with the thought that- The history of all hitherto societies has been the history of class struggles. In the book, the authors talk about the drawbacks that have arisen in the society due to the formation of two classes: the bourgeois and the proletariats, and the antagonism between these two classes. In the first chapter of the book Bourgeois and Proletarians, Marx and Engels describe the rise of the bourgeois class, in which he thought the French revolution had played a huge part. He also explains that how tremendously the bourgeois class is harmful to the society and that it will be the cause of its own destruction. In the second chapter of the book Proletarians and Communists, the authors main focus is on the ideologies and features of the Communists and that they aim to work on behalf of the proletariats. He also expresses own thoughts regarding the modern bourgeois property features, wage-labor, capital accumulation and lastly ends his argument by saying, In place of the old bourgeois society, with its classes and class antagonisms, we shall have an association, in which the free development of each is the condition for the free development of all. Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels in this chapter mostly talks about the determined willpower of the communists towards the formation of proletariat into a class, overthrow the bourgeois supremacy and the power governance/takeover by the proletariat class in this chapter. They discuss many of the reasons why property and capital are at the power of the bourgeois class. In the passage I have chosen they argue that the wage labour creates only capital which in turn creates the property, but only for the bourgeois not the proletariats and this system needs to be changed in the society. In the first paragraph, the author talks about wage labour- the person who comes to work to earn a minimum salary for living. There is a certain aggression in the tone of the writing throughout the whole chapter which reflects their rage regarding the issue. They say that the average salary of a wage-labour is only the least possible amount of money needed for the worker to only come to work every day. What, therefore, the wage-labourer appropriates by means of his labour, merely suffices to prolong and reproduce a bare existence.- Marx and Engels seem to write this with complete offence and disbelief.ÂÂ   Because the scenario which they are talking about, which in fact still exists now, is that workers put their effort and are exploited constantly by the bourgeois class. The two dollars therefore expresses the relation in which labor-power is exchanged for other commodities, the exchange value of labor-power. The exchange value of a commodity estimated in money is called its price this is an extract from Karl Marxs writing Wage Labour and Capital in which he clearly explains that the wage labourer only receives the money in exchange for his work. This turns to the fact that a proletariat sells its own flesh and meat in exchange of a minuscule amount of money, which is completely undeserved. Moving on to an example from Adam Smiths book The Wealth of Nations. He says that a commodity is only priced at the cost of what it requires for the person to bring the product into the market. He explains the factors that are looked into while pricing a commodity where wage of the labour is only one of the factors; hence it is very distinct that the wage labourer cannot even afford to buy the product he himself has produced in the factory. His salary is just a bare minimum for him to afford some food and clothing so that he can come to work the next day to be exploited again by the bourgeois. The two kinds of societies that are talked about are the bourgeois or todays capitalist society, and the other is the imagined communist society which communists aim to establish. The authors expresses that in the capitalist mode of production, the workers are only seen as the work power or the force that will earn more capital for the bourgeois through their effort. But in the communist society, the whole proletariat class is a way to promote and enrich themselves and their lives too and not only serving the bourgeois. In bourgeois society, therefore, the past dominates the present; in Communist society, the present dominates the past- this statement is not very precise or clear, but from the lines written just before and after this statement it appears as if Marx and Engels think of the accumulated labour as the past and living labour as the present. Hence, the motivation and ambition to produce more labours will give rise to exploitation by the bourgeois on the present working lab our. The labourer only exists because it has to work for increasing the capital which brings me to the point that capital is materialistic, an inanimate object whereas the proletariat is a living person with will, wish and needs. Despite this being a fact, in the capitalist society, the bourgeois dominate the proletariats for which they gain no power or anything and are not free willed. Whereas capital, when controlled being a material object, has complete power to run anything or anyone. It is possible for the owner of capital to run his work without any particular labourer amongst the millions, but it is the labourers who are entirely and in a very complexed way dependent upon selling their labour. Also, the labourers do not have the opportunity to choose between a numbers of capitalists. In this way the labourers are destined to cope up with conditions in which they always give more labour power as an input than they get back in reward as the incentive. In the last paragraph from the suggested passage I have chosen, the authors seems to talk about the fact that the destruction of this cycle of manipulation and corruption, which is desired by the communists is thought to be unreasonable by the bourgeois society. The bourgeois society holds the communists accountable for depriving them of their individuality and freedom. By critically analyzing it appears that Marx and Engels critiques the existing capitalist society by saying that By freedom is meant, under the present bourgeois conditions of production, free trade, free selling, and free buying. In Capitalist mode of production the freedom is the freedom to buy and sell in the market for free, but only for the bourgeois.ÂÂ   Bourgeois desire to earn as much as capital they can earn needed that is crucial to acquire all the social power in the society. Throughout the whole writing it is very evident that Marx and Engels have persistently portrayed that the whole society is about the exchange of the propertied class and the property-less class. But this is only for profitable development of the former class by the help of the latter. The Communist Manifesto, being one of the most influential political theory books has been an inspiration for many also in the contemporary society today. It has very boldly addressed the social relations and structure of power in the society and how it depends on the production process. It has shown that proletariats are only worth to the bourgeois as long as it brings profits. But there are some aspects of the writing which makes us think about the usefulness and consequences of the establishment of a communist society. Marx and Engels point out several times that if the bourgeois possess majority of the property then exploitation will continue but an argument they also make is that the owner of the m eans of production do not work but make others work for them. Therefore, if proletariat forms into a class and earns property for them, they are also bound to become idle. Proletariats will also not work and fall under the bourgeois class and use their cogency to compel others to work for them. This circle of power struggles is bound to continue in different forms probably, which is why Marx and Engels writing is still essential.

Opposition to State-Mandated Premarital HIV Screening Essays -- AIDS

Opposition to State-Mandated Premarital HIV Screening When screening for HIV became possible in mid-1985, debates began concerning the role of such screening in controlling the spread of AIDS. One such debate concerned state-mandated premarital HIV screening. This policy was proposed to the CDC conference in February of 1987, but never received much widespread support, because it satisfied neither the proponents of public health nor the proponents of civil liberties (Reamer 37). This essay will show that the state is unjustified in enacting such policy and hopefully also shed some light on why such policy received so little support. In a liberal society such as the United States that values both civil liberties and public health, it is often unclear which policies best address the threat posed by the AIDS epidemic. It is clear that on the one hand, the United States is committed to respect the privacy and personal autonomy of its citizens. Though not expressly written in the constitution, the right to privacy is implicit in the right to deny illegal search and seizure of home and explicit in the recent laws that protect the privacy of internet and credit card users. On the other hand, the United States is also committed to "promote the general welfare", meaning it has a moral obligation to promote public health. Traditionally, in the struggle between civil liberties and public health, the United States has given precedent to civil liberties but yielded to departures when it was proven that doing so was justifiable by the resulting benefits to public health. AIDS, however, challenges the balance between civil lib erties and public health like no other previous epidemic, due to the strong threat it poses to public health and ... ...avior, they could probably have been identified through programs aimed at groups with a higher prevalence of seropositives. Hence, the last two conditions of our ethical framework are also not met. Using an ethical framework borrowed from Childress, it is clear that a state committed to upholding the civil liberties of its citizens as well as promoting public health is unjustified in mandating premarital HIV screening. Such screening infringes on civil liberties and does not promote public health in an efficient way. The state is obligated to seek other policies by which to promote public health, such as voluntary testing and educational programming for married couples, which do not violate civil liberties and which more efficiently target those who are seropositive. Works Cited Reamer, Frederic G. AIDS & Ethics. Columbia University Press: New York, 1991.

Animals in Research: Ethical Issues Essay

Scientific quest for knowledge and animal experimentation has been inexorably tied to each other both in popular imagination and human history (Bishop & Nolen, 2001). The use of animals in scientific research has resulted to spectacular innovations in the field of medicine and understanding of animal, including human, physiology. Many medicinal technologies were developed that are now used to treat illnesses that were once causing heavy death toll. However, different individuals and communities had different responses to the use of animals in research. This led to debates and protests of individuals and organizations with concerns on ethics and animal rights. Is the use of animals as research subjects ethical? Scientific Perspective To answer our question, let us first look into the scientific perspective of the issue. According to Bishop and Nolen (2001), there are approximately 35 million animals used in scientific research worldwide in an annual basis. Approximately 10 to 17 million animals are killed in American laboratories alone (Walshaw, â€Å"Ethical Issues in Animal Research†). The animals used in laboratory researches include mice, rats, rabbits, guinea pigs, pigs, dogs, sheep, primates, and cats. In the United States, rats, mice, and birds comprise about 90-95% of the total animals killed during biomedical researches (â€Å"Animals in Scientific Procedures: Regulation in the USA†). Why are animals needed in research? There are four reasons why scientists use animals in research (â€Å"Why Are Animals Need in Research? †). The first reason is that humans and some animals are similar in physiology and anatomy. Scientists prefer to use animals as tests subjects rather than humans in their preliminary research. The second reason, certain strands of animals are infected with the same illnesses or conditions as humans. These animals are referred to as â€Å"Animal Models† and are studied to understand the nature of the disease and hopefully provide appropriate treatment. The third reason lies in the principles of â€Å"research†, which is to introduce one variable and observe its results on the system studied. It is easier to control the environment (i. e. emperature, humidity) of animals in the laboratory and prevent any intrusions of disease-causing bacteria and viruses that will cause diseases not related to research, which in common sense, controlling their health. Humans have different life styles that affect their health thus making it difficult to use them as test subjects. The fourth reason pertains to the test for validity of the results obtained from the research. This means test for statistics, i. e. testing a number of animals before coming up with the outright conclusion. In humans, this test is difficult to perform since they have different cases. As a result, data obtained from one case is no longer a research and the results may not apply to the whole population. Now that we have identified the four reasons why animals are needed in research, let us now identify the different issues related to animal rights and ethical issues in research with animals. Regulations and Animal Safety Standards The Public Health Service Guide for Care and Use of Laboratory Animals and the Animal Welfare Act are the two US regulations that monitor and control biomedical researches. The Public Health Service Guidelines is administered by the Office of for Laboratory Animal Welfare of the National Institutes of Health (NIH). The PHS guidelines were designed for any animal research that is funded by the federal government, i. e. researches done by federal agencies. Under the PHS guidelines is an oversight system, the Institutional Animal Care and Use Committees (IACUCs). The system evaluates research procedures, reviews research animal care protocols, including waste disposal, and inspect facilities of the research laboratory as well as educate and facilitate the laboratory personnel. It also functions to investigate reports of animal misuse and mistreatment, particularly during the research process. The Animal Welfare Act controls research of animals that are not mentioned in the PHS guidelines. Under this act, only the animal species specifically mentioned are allowed to be studied. The animals included under the Public Law 89-544 are the following: non-human primates, rabbits, guinea pigs, hamsters, cats and dogs. However, the 1970 amendment gave authorization to the USDA Secretary to include other warm-blooded animals and also gave the legislation its current name. Further amendments to the AWA require the registration of some pain-relieving drugs under the Improved Standards for Laboratory Animals Act (ISLA) of 1985. One problem with these laws is that some animal researches conducted by pharmaceutical companies or genetic engineering firms no longer coincide with these federal regulations. The use of rats, mice and birds are not included in the AWA which means that federal standards, including animal care programs, do not apply to the researches. At present, the USDA is drafting regulations to include these animals to the act. Issues on Ethics and Animal Rights There are four issues that pertain to animal rights (Walshaw & Burton, 1999). The first issue deals with the â€Å"use of animals for human purposes†. The adherents of the use of animals in biomedical research argue that animals do not have â€Å"moral standing† in the sense that they do not have: self-consciousness, freedom to act and engage in purposive behavior, reasons for actions and ability to appreciate reasons for actions, capacity to communicate with humans using a language, capacity to make moral judgments and rationality. On the other hand, some people argue that the question on animal use is not, â€Å"can they reason or talk? †, but rather, â€Å"can they suffer? † Animals have feelings like that of humans. The second issue on animal rights talks about the â€Å"nature and effects of the research on animal welfare†. In this issue, adherents defend their position by pointing out the â€Å"3 R’s†. These are reduce, refine, and replace. They argue that modern techniques on animal research include the use of modern anesthetics and also advances in the computer technology which reduce the â€Å"pain† those animals feel during the process. Also, advances in computer technology aid biomedical scientists in getting data with lesser need of animals. The third issue deals with appearances, â€Å"can the experiment be perceived as being unpleasant or have unaesthetic appearances? † In this issue, some people argue that animal research that involves killing, cutting and slicing of animal parts is unpleasant. In most cases, the adherents of this idea are those involved in some religious beliefs or philosophies. Hindu religion, for example, houses animals (i. . rodents, primates) in temples believing that those were reincarnates of their ancestors. They treat these animals with high respect. The fourth issue is about the â€Å"purposes or benefits of the procedures†. This pertains to the different cases in which humans benefited from animal research. Under this issue, the adherents of the use of animals in research defend their position by citing the different purposes, and benefits, that humans will get from the research of animals. The purposes and benefits of the using animals as test subjects answer the question â€Å"why are animals needed in research? †. The four reasons why animals are preferred in biomedical research are identified above. Is the use of animals in research ethical? I believe, yes. I adhere to the ideologies of the biomedical scientists. The aforementioned information will support my opinion. It is beneficial to use animals in science. After all, scientists were able to find ways to save and prolong the lives of people who are infected with deadly diseases.

A Research Study On Metacognitive Behavior, Regulation,...

Through the use of a small mathematical modeling group the relationship between metacognition and mathematical problem solving was looked at to understand it more in regards to situations and contexts without prompting by teacher. This article questions how the selections of metacognitive strategies come about. The goal of the study being to characterize contexts and situations that give rise to metacognitive activity. The author states that previous research has shown that good problem solvers engage in metacognitive activity throughout various phases of problem-solving. It is also stated that at the same time research shows there has been little evidence of metacognitive activity of poor problem solvers. Also noted in regards to poor problem solvers is that some metacognitive activity is only evident during the early phases of problem. There have been research efforts which utilize these results, focusing on improving problem solving by identifying specific metacognitive behaviors. The author also states that additional research on metacognition regarding mathematical problem solving focuses primarily on metacognitive awareness, regulation, and evaluation. The Authors mention that very little research has been published in mathematics education literature focusing on metacognitive activity in regards to how students select metacognitive strategies. Is it that the student actually selects it or is it an unconscious act? Reference is given to Stillman and Galbraith (1998)Show MoreRelatedA Research Study On Metacognitive Behavior, Regulation, And Evaluation1481 Words   |  6 Pagesteacher. This article questions how the selections of metacognitive strategies come about. The goal of the study being to characterize contexts and situations that give rise to metacognitive activity. The author states that previous research has shown that good problem solvers engage in metacognitive activity throughout various phases of problem-solving. 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